Social Change for Development

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Social change is said to be inevitable as it happens over time as the response to the changing patterns of surrounding environments and communities. It can be positive or negative. Positive social change is most desired as it results to improvement of the social institutions unlike negative social change which leads to partial or total destruction of social institutions. This short paper is about social changes giving the meaning, types, theories, causes and patterns of social changes. Mainly the paper argues that social change must occur as it transforms the society to overcome the changing patterns of the surrounding environments. All individuals in the society must participate in the transformation of society—to ensure that human values replace the values of the old elite.
1.2 The meaning of Social change
Social change is a general term which refers to change in the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior or the social relations of a society, community of people, or other structures. It also refers to any event or action that affects a group of individuals that have shared values or characteristics. Social change may as well refer to acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a normative way (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia).
Social change is the structural transformation of political, social and economic systems and institution to create a more equitable and just society.
The concept of social change implies measurement of some characteristics of this group of individuals. While the term is usually applied to changes that are beneficial to society, it may result in negative side-effects or consequences that undermine or eliminate existing ways of life that are considered positive.

2.0 TYPES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
2.1 Progressive Social Change
This is defined as activity that leads to greater citizen empowerment and involvement more effective institutions, particularly in, but not limited to, the government and social sectors ; Greater accountability, mutual responsibility and transparency between and among individuals, organizations, movements and sectors (e.g. government, social and business) and more widespread prosperity via more equal opportunity and access
2.2 Negative social change/Societal collapse
This is the large scale breakdown or long term decline of the culture, civil institutions or other major characteristics of a society or a civilization, on a temporary or permanent basis. The breakdown of cultural and social institutions is perhaps the most common feature of collapse. Societies may not end or die when they collapse, but may instead adapt and be born anew. The good mentioned example of negative social changes is the collapse of Roman Empire.
3 0 THEORIES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
3.1 Functionalism
The key concept of functionalism theories of social change is that societies have certain stable structures and that they change in a linear development model of social change. Concept of stability is a defining characteristic of structure, defines activities that are necessary for the survival of the system, i.e. society has functional requisites or imperatives where different functional requisites produce differentiated structures that specialize in accomplishing the requisites.
The changes are system maintenance; structural differentiation; adaptive upgrading and; structural change
3.2. Conflict theories
The theory is basing on conflict as being an important source of social change. According to Marxism strains are inherent in social structures. Source of strains/contradictions is said to be the inherent scarcity of certain goods and values. Thus inequality is source of conflict. Unlike Marxism which sees a utopian society with no conflict in the end, neo-Marxists are antiutopian. Conflict is engine of change - has both destructive and creative consequences, destroy old orders, create new ones
Again according to Neo Marxism scholars conflicts doesn’t always derive from struggles in control of the means of production; other conflicts based on politics, religion, ethnic or ideological differences, e.g. class, status and power.
Accordingly conflict can be unregulated: e.g. terrorism, sabotage, disorder; regulated by social norms: e.g. economic boycotts, parliamentary debate, marketplace competitions; intense conflict: high degree of mobilization, commitment, emotional involvement; violent conflict: random, unorganized; pluralized conflict: many conflicts but not necessarily related and thus not much change, gradual and; superimposed conflict: dyadic conflicts, large cleavage between us and them, dramatic/intense change, not necessarily.
3.3 Interpretive theories
For Functionalists and Conflict theorists, the starting point of sociological analysis of change is structure. BUT For Interpretivists, change itself (interaction, process, negotiation) is the starting point, and structure is a by-product and temporary. Social change is the constant creation, negotiation and re-creation of social order. Social change can be understood by looking at change in meanings and definitions. Groups, societies, organizations become real only insofar that the actors believe they are to be real, thus a negotiated consensus about what is real emerges; i.e. society is literally a social construction, an outcome of historical process of symbolic interaction and negotiation. In complex societies, there is only a partial consensus on what constitutes objective social reality; instead there is a virtual tapestry of contending realities.
According to interpretivists change of external factors does not automatically produce social change. Rather when people redefine situations regarding those factors and thus act upon revised meanings, i.e. alter social behaviour, then there is social change.
4.0 CAUSES OF SOCIAL CHANGE
4.1 Materialistic perspectives
Materialistic perspectives emphasize on technology technological causes of change, material culture (technology) changes more quickly than nonmaterial culture (values, ideas, norms, ideologies), i.e. there is a period of maladjustment (a lag time) during which nonmaterial culture is still adapting to new material conditions. Technology causes change in three namely (i) increases alternatives available to society, creates new opportunities; (ii) alters interaction patterns among people, changes structures of human groups and; (iii) creates new problems.
4. 2. Idealistic perspectives
These are values, beliefs and ideologies. In essence, values and beliefs, both religious and secular, have decisive impact on shaping social change. Example in Protestantism produced a cultural ethic which sanctified work and worldly achievement, encouraged frugality and discouraged consumption. Unintended consequences of this religious worldview, this-worldly asceticism, encouraged development of large pools of capital through encouraging work, savings and non-frivolous consumption, and encouraged rational reinvestment and economic growth. Work was a religiously sanctioned calling. Each man is a moral free agent, accountable only to God. Suspicious of material consumption beyond bare necessities believing it led to moral corruption.

We should however note that ideas and values can cause change or be barriers to change, can be barriers at one time or promote change at another time. Ideational culture can cause change by:

5.0 PATTERNS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
5.1 Linear models
Change is said to be linear when is cumulative, non repetitive, developmental and usually permanent. The typical examples of linear models of change are;
· A broad historical pattern of change in human societies as involving transition from small, undifferentiated societies with homogeneous culture to large societies with high degree of structural differentiation and heterogeneous culture. It is caused by innovations in the technology of economic production that produced ever larger surplus of material resources; hunting and gathering; pastoral and horticultural; agricultural and; industrial
· Urbanization; involves ancient process of interaction between cities and surrounding countryside. The city are a marketplace (economic production), centre of political and administrative authority (political power) and of urban community. There are ancient and medieval cities; commercial cities; industrial cities; corporate cities and world cities
5.2 Cyclical models
Here change is said to be cyclical and repetitive in nature e.g. business cycles, families, college life t.c.
5.3 Dialectical models
Contains elements of both cyclical and linear change, and thus change is spiral; significant change takes place as an attempt to resolve the accumulation of intolerable contradictions, the unravelling of stresses that are inherent in social life; short term repetitive change but with long term cumulative directional change; processes of change persist but the contents of the processes are changing.
6.0 CONCLUSION
There are established institutions in every society and they are subjected to positive or negative changes. When the old institutions crumble, there is no guarantee that more human-centered structures will replace them.
That is why we all must participate in the transformation of society—to ensure that human values replace the values of the old elite. Our struggle should not be completely political because political revolutions simply deliver concentrated power into new hands, rather than dispersing it. Furthermore, political thought is rarely innovative: political change usually originates from social conditions, rather than the other way around. Instead of political revolution, our goal should be social revolution. Social revolution is nothing more than a change in the way we live our lives. It springs from changes in the way we think.
In today's context, revolution occurs when people stop believing one thing, and start believing something else; when people discard their old ways of living, and begin to live in new ways. When enough people lose faith in an institution and begin to act as if it did not exist, that institution disappears.
Most values and institutions are social constructions. They are invented by the society. And if they don't serve needs of the society, they can be eliminated.
Everything done in a society can have revolutionary implications: How the society makes money, how it spends leisure time, how individuals relate to their family, friends, co-workers, strangers. Every activity that asserts individuality and autonomy from corporate/government/religious control is in itself a profoundly revolutionary act, regardless of content.



7.0 REFERENCES
Community Wealth Ventures (2003), Powering Social Changes; Lessons on Community Wealth Generation for Nonprofit Sustainability, Washington DC
Doepke, M & Zilibotti, F (2005). "Social Class and the Spirit of Capitalism," Journal of the European Economic Association, MIT Press, vol. 3(2-3), pages 516-524, 04/05.
Parsons, T (1966), Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
Sztompka, P (1994), The Sociology of Social Change, Blackwell Publishers, 1994,
http://www.reslife.cmich.edu
http://www.wikipedia.com Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Human Capacity

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Human capacity is very important in community economic development initiatives. If there is no capacity of the community, development programmes outcomes con not be realized. However communities have certain capacities which exist and others which need to be enhanced by developing capacity building initiatives at macro and community levels. This paper briefly explains the meaning of capacity, some extraordinary human capacities and capacity building mechanisms.

2.0 DEFINING HUMAN CAPACITY

According to the UNDP (1998) as quoted by Matambalya (2006) "capacity can be defined as the ability of individuals and Organizations or organizational units to perform functions effectively, efficiently and sustainably.” The definition shows three elements of capacity which are (i) capacity is evolving in nature i. e it is a continuous process (ii) it shows the central role of human resources and the way in which they are utilized, in defining the term capacity (iii) Third, it suggests that the overall context within which organizations undertake their functions is also a key consideration in strategies for capacity building initiatives. Human capacity is tied with a continuous process of increasing knowledge, skills, and the capacity of the society.

The process of enhancing human capacities in different aspects is regarded as of human resources development. In economics this is regarded as accumulation of human capital and its effective investment in the development of an economy. In political terms, human resources development prepares people for adult participation in political processes, particularly as citizens in a democracy. From the social and cultural points of view, the development of human resources helps people to lead fuller and richer lives, less bound by tradition. In short, the processes of human resources development unlock the door to modernization (Sriyan: 1997)

3.0 HUMAN CAPACITIES
Literatures reveal that one of the capacities each individual has, is the capacity to understand. This is very important trait/asset to every individual and for development endeavors.
According to Steven Brunkhorst, human beings have seventeen extraordinary capacities that make human beings remarkable. When these capacities are recognize and used, the quality of human lives improves. The capacities are; Helping someone in their time of tragedy or need shows the capacity for human goodness; Listening closely to another's words and experience shows the capacity for soulful communication; Understanding the pain, sorrow, or loss of another person shows the capacity for empathy; Believing the best about others, and offering time, support, and friendship shows the capacity for trust; Apologizing for a past mistake shows the capacity for strong character and trustworthiness; Forgiving the errors of a fellow human being shows the capacity to receive forgiveness; Supporting the truth, even when it is unpopular, shows the capacity for honesty and integrity; Compromising when it is best for the welfare of others shows the capacity for teamwork; Giving time and effort to assist others to be successful shows the capacity for sincerity; Being curious about life, its people and its mysteries, shows the capacity for learning; Praying for the welfare of family, friends, and all of humanity shows the capacity for love; Waiting for God's answer to a prayer shows the capacity for faith and patience; Accepting the answer to a prayer, whatever it might be, discovering its blessings, and then moving on shows the capacity for gratitude; Believing in a God-given purpose throughout long and difficult seasons of scarcity shows the capacity for determination and hope; Taking risks, making mistakes, and learning from all experiences show the capacity for being human; Getting up after having fallen down or suffered failure shows the capacity for resolve and; Persisting resolutely to navigate life's rapids, scale its mountains, move beyond its perceived limitations, and arrive at its finish line with faith and dignity shows the capacity for achievement.

4.0 CAPACITY BUILDIG
It has been noted at the beginning that human capacity is a continuous processes which can be built as well as can be lost over time. Hence for the purpose of development and improving the quality of life it needs to build. Human capacity can be built from the study of the changing environment or strategically enhanced by different programmes. Capacity building therefore encompasses the development of a country's human, Scientific, technological, organizational, institutional and resource capabilities. Human resources development is very important for development of any country because in any economic activity, it is the human element that commands, directs, organizes, controls and maximizes the utilization of other factors of production. The quality of people appropriate to the particular level and complexities of the activity determines how well or poorly, these tasks are accomplished.
Capacity building encompasses a wide range of area such as health care, nutrition, population control, education and training. However it is worth to note that, capacity building is done from the macro level to grassroots with elements like;
a) Legal and regulatory frame works; In order to build the capacity for development at all levels, legal and regulatory frame works need to be conducive. This enables individuals and organizations at all levels to participate fully in economic activities. If conducive environment is not enhanced, may hinder development of the nation. For instance one of the sited problems in Tanzania hindering the growth of SMEs sector and the private sector in general are business regulatory compliances. Long procedures in registrations, taxation and licensing systems are not for pro growth of the sector. It is in this context the Business Environment Strengthening for Tanzania (BEST) Programme was introduced in 2002 to make necessary reforms to enable development of the Private sector.
b) Human resources development. It is also equally important to build the capacity of the society in terms of education and training. Strategic investment in both soft and hard education infrastructures need to be developed. Regulatory frame works need to be complimented by the capacity of the available human resources so as to foster development of a country. This therefore refers to a process of equipping individuals with the knowledge and skills and access to information, in order to enable them to perform their tasks more effectively. The process is usually realized through education (formal and informal) and training.
c) Institutional (or organizational) development. This involves designing institutional structures, processes and procedures from the macro to the community and establishes relationship within the community. This is very important part of the capacity building processes.

5.0 CONCLUSION
In concluding, we recommend that, governments need to enhance capacities to communities if it is to realize economic development. People need to be enhanced to participate in economic endeavors. Macro and sectoral policies, together with legislations which are friendly users are to be put in place to motivate the people to engage in economic activities


6.0 REFERENCES

Francis A.S.T. Matambalya (2006); Improving Trade Related Capacity Building in LDCs: Lessons from a Survey of Initiatives in Tanzania and Eastern Africa; Discussion Paper prepared for the fourth meeting of the advisory group on the strengthening of UNCTAD Training Capacities and Human Resources Development, Geneva, 22-23 March 2006

Sriyan, Silva (1997); Human Resources Development for Competitiveness: A priority for Employers; International Labour Office, Turin, Italy

Steven Brunkhorst http://ezinearticles.com/?expert=Steve_Brunkhorst

http://www.achieveezine.com

Knowldge

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Development of a community is a complex issue which encompasses many elements, one of them being knowledge. This journal briefly explains the meaning of knowledge and other related terms which are epistemology, intelligence, wisdom, empiricism, rationalism, belief and truth in part two. Part three gives the essentials of knowledge whereas part four is about the importance of knowledge and part four is about the transfer of knowledge.

2. 0 MEANING OF KNOWLEDGE AND RELATED TERMS
According to Oxford English Dictionary knowledge is defined as (is) facts, information, and skills acquired by a person through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject, (ii) what is known in a particular field or in total; facts and information or (iii) awareness or familiarity gained by experience of a fact or situation. Plato regards knowledge as "justified true belief".
Epistemology is therefore the branch of philosophy which deals with theories, origin, nature and limits of human knowledge and its validity. Basic questions in epistemology are to find (i) whether knowledge of any kind is possible (ii) whether some human knowledge is innate or acquired through experience (iii) whether knowledge is inherently a mental state (iv) whether certainty is a form of knowledge.

Intelligence is a property of mind that encompasses many related abilities, such as capacities to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use language, and to learn. Intelligence may include traits such as: creativity, personality, character, knowledge, or wisdom, essential traits for human beings development. Intelligence is a very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do. However one needs to note that individuals differ from one another in level of intelligence

Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a proposition or premise (argument) to be true without necessarily being able to adequately prove their main contention to other people who may or may not agree. If someone believes something, he or she thinks that it is true, but they may be mistaken.

Truth the Aristotelian definition of truth states:"To say of something which is that it is not, or to say of something which is not that it is, is false. However, to say of something which is that it is, or of something which is not that it is not, is true."
Wisdom are accumulated philosophic or scientific learning-knowledge; Ability to discern inner qualities and relationships-insight; Good sense-judgment, wise attitude, belief, or course of action. Wisdom is often considered to be a trait that can be developed by experience, but not taught.

According to the philosophical point of view, knowledge can be gained through empiricism or rationalism. Empiricism: this is the belief in observation and experience as the basis of knowledge, rather than logical deduction, reasoning or intuition. Rationalism is "any view appealing to reason as a source of knowledge or justification". It is the view that reasons aided by observations should serve preeminently as the ground of all our convictions. In this way knowledge is gained through scientific reasoning about the fact. It is not just about experience. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rationalism

3.0 ESSENTILS OF KNOWLEDGE
Not each perceived fact can be regarded as knowledge. The fact can qualify to be knowledge if it has the following essential elements;
(1) Knowledge is essentially the consciousness of an object, i.e. of any thing, fact, or principle belonging to the physical, mental, or metaphysical order, that may in any manner be reached by cognitive faculties
(2) Truth and certitude are conditions of knowledge. Knowledge is not a mere opinion or probable assent. There must be conformity of thought with reality. Illusions of an individual that he knows and subjectively can not be regarded as knowledge.
(3) Knowledge supposes a judgment, explicit or implicit. This is a mental conception about a fact and making judgments. The mind does not receive everything without judging, it is also active in looking for conditions and causes, and in building up science out of the materials which it receives from experience. Thus observation and thought are two essential factors in knowledge.

4.0 IMPORTANCE OF KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge is the foundation of human life. It is essential in decision making, planning and all aspect of human needs knowledge. Development endeavors depend on how human are knowledgeable. Knowledge is very essential in community economic development participatory approaches. People need to know the policies and other macro programmes which positively or negatively affect their way of life. They also need to be knowledgeable about global issues like change in production technologies, world politics, market prices of their produce and the like.
Knowledge has always been at the core of any country’s development process. Consequently, countries’ competitiveness depends more than ever on their ability to access, adapt, and utilize knowledge for development.

5.0 KNOWLEDGE TRASNFER
Knowdge can be transferred from one organization to another within the community, from one generation to another, or from one community to another.
Traditionally some kind of knowledge is accepted as true simply because previous generations passed them on to the next generation as true beliefs. Traditional beliefs are not necessarily true or false; right or wrong; good or bad. From a social point of view, some traditional beliefs have positive results and path knowledge from one generation to another. Authoritarian beliefs rest on the fact that members of a group accept a statement as true because persons in powerful positions in the group say the statement is true.
Since the discovery of scientific inquiry in the 16th century knowledge have been acquired from researches and being transferred from one community to another and/or one generation to another.

We have seen that knowledge is very important in Community Economic Development of any community, therefore mechanisms for knowledge transfer from one organization to another is very essential as well as transferring knowledge from one community to another and also from one generation to another. Community need to develop such mechanisms
The process of knowledge transfer starts by identifying the knowledge holders within the organization and motivating them to share with the rest of the community. You need also to design a sharing mechanism to facilitate the transfer, executing the transfer plan, measuring to ensure the transfer and lastly applying the knowledge transferred.
Transferee of knowledge is not smooth as there some factors which complicates the process. There are; inability to recognize & articulate "compiled" or highly intuitive competencies - tacit knowledge idea; geography or distance; limitations of ICTs; lack of a shared/superordinate social identity; language; areas of expertise ; internal conflicts (for example, professional territoriality); incentives ; problems with sharing beliefs, assumptions, heuristics and cultural norms; misconceptions; faulty information and; lack of trust

6.0 CONCLUSION
The issue of knowdge is very important














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